Chapter 7:
Participation and Voting
Synopsis
The democratic ideal that "government ought to be run by the people"
does not determine how much citizen participation, and what kind,
is necessary for democratic government. Proponents of direct democracy
insist on citizen participation in formulating government policy.
Practical observers contend that citizens can govern indirectly through
elected representatives.
There are two basic forms of political participation. Conventional
participation refers to relatively routine political behavior
using the institutional channels of repre-sentative government, such
as election. Individuals may engage in supportive behavior,
which expresses allegiance to government and country. Typically, however,
citizens participate in conventional politics in order to influence
government policy. People may seek particular benefits for themselves
or they may hope to modify the broad policies of government.
Unconventional participation, on the other hand, refers to
relatively uncommon behavior that threatens or defies government channels.
Americans generally disapprove of unconventional political actions
that interfere with daily living. Unconventional participation, however,
had some notable successes in influencing government policy during
the Vietnam War. The civil rights movement relied on direct action‹assembling
crowds to confront business and local government‹against racial
discrimination. Direct political action requires a special commitment
and willingness to sacrifice from those who participate in it. People
participating in unconventional political behavior distrust the political
system and have a strong sense of political efficacy and a highly
developed sense of group consciousness. Studies suggest that Americans
are more likely to participate in both conventional and unconventional
political behavior than citizens of other democratic countries‹except
for voting.
Participation through elections is still the heart of democratic process.
Although the elimination of property-holding requirements expanded
suffrage to all white males by the 1850s, other groups were incorporated
much later. Blacks gained an effective right to vote only with the
passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Women fought hard and long
for the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution
in 1920, which guaranteed their right to vote. In 1971, the Twenty-sixth
Amendment extended suffrage to all citizens over eighteen years of
age.
The legacy of progressivism in American politics left behind
several mechanisms of direct citizen participation in policymaking.
The direct primary allows ordinary citizens to vote directly
for their candidates. The recall allows citizens to remove
unpopular or incompetent officials from office before their term is
up. Through the referendum, citizens vote directly on issues.
In addition, by means of the initiative, state and local voters
are allowed to propose issues to be decided by their legislatures.
Voters are expected to choose candidates they believe will best serve
their interests. Elections make public officials accountable, assuming
that citizens have adequate information about the candidates and their
offices.
There are several explanations for why people participate in politics,
especially by voting. The standard socioeconomic model of participation
suggest that people with more education, more income, and professional
or white-collar jobs are more likely to participate in politics. Education
is the strongest single predictor of participation.
Despite improvements in education and income, voting turnout in the
United States has declined over time. This is in part the result of
the increased pool of eligible voters since the voting age was lowered
from twenty-one to eighteen in 1971. Young people are less likely
to vote. Psychological studies have found that there is a decreasing
belief in the efficacy of voting. Restrictive laws and the burden
of individual registration discourage voting in the United States.
In addition, political parties fail to mobilize voters because of
weak group-party linkages. Inadequate information about a large number
of candidates and offices also discourages voting.
From a normative perspective, it is clear that individuals should
be free to participate in politics as they wish. However, citizens'
ability to influence government depends on their resources. There
is, in addition, a tradeoff between freedom to participate in politics
and government's desire to maintain order. Not surprisingly, governments
have a stake in converting unconventional modes of participation to
conventional modes.
The two models of democracy allow us to evaluate the role of participation
in a democracy. The majoritarian model favors collective decisions
formalized through elections. The pluralist model favors a
decentralized complex form of government with many points of access.
Pluralists therefore support forms of conventional political participation
outside of the electoral process.
Synopsis 
